BC Technologies 

This level encompasses concepts that establish the theoretical and systemic foundation for bioconvergence. These integrative principles connect biological, engineering, and digital systems. These concepts are not technologies in themselves, but rather paradigms of integration and intersections between disciplines that enable the field to exist. 

Core Concepts: 

1. Bioelectronics: The integration of electronic components with biological systems for the purpose of measurement, control, or communication between living systems and smart technologies³Willner, I., Katz, E., & Willner, M. (2001). Biomaterials integrated with electronic elements: en route to bioelectronics? Trends in Biotechnology, 19(6), 222-230..
2. Bioengineering: The application of engineering principles to the design and construction of biological or bio-based systems, encompassing tissues, organs, and medical applications⁴Mazzeo, A., Gaharwar, A. K., & Willerth, S. M. (2024). Commemorative 10th Anniversary Issue of Bioengineering: Perspectives in Bioengineering. Bioengineering, 11(4), 237..
3. Bionics for Machinery: : The design of mechanical systems that incorporate biological properties of living organisms, including movement, response, and environmental adaptation⁵Menciassi, A., Takeuchi, S., & Kamm, R. D. (2020). Biohybrid systems: Borrowing from nature to make better machines. APL Bioengineering, 4(2), 021503..
4. Digital Twins for Biology: Accurate digital representations of physical biological systems, utilized for real-time monitoring, simulation, and performance improvement⁶Alsalloum, G. A., Al Sawaftah, N. M., Percival, K. M., & Husseini, G. A. (2024). Digital Twins of Biological Systems: A Narrative Review. IEEE Open Journal of Engineering in Medicine and Biology, 5, 670-677..
5. Biomanufacturing: Industrial-scale manufacturing predicated on the utilization of living systems and biological processes to create materials and products⁷Zhang, Y.-H. P., Sun, J., & Ma, Y. (2017). Biomanufacturing: history and perspective. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, 44(4-5), 773–784. .

This level encompasses platforms and technologies that fundamentally embody the concept of bioconvergence – they are integrative in their nature, crossing disciplinary boundaries and integrating biological, engineering, and digital knowledge to develop innovative applications. Such platforms and technologies actualize the potential of bioconvergence across various domains, including medicine, agriculture, industry, and the environment. These are capabilities that transcend existing limitations, provide novel solutions to intricate challenges, and, in some instances, foster the emergence of entirely new markets. 

The following section delineates the core concepts derived from the initial level, categorized into platforms and technologies that exemplify their application at the technological level. It is noteworthy that several technologies are represented across multiple core concepts; for instance, bioprinting, biohybrid robots, and metabolic engineering, which are affiliated with two core concepts. These overlaps do not signify an error; rather, they underscore the distinctly interdisciplinary character of bioconvergence, wherein specific technologies assume varying roles contingent upon the context, application, or discipline.

1. Bioelectronics:

• Biosensors: Devices that incorporate a biological component, facilitating the identification of substances (analytes), detection of biological signals (such as membrane markers), or measurement of environmental parameters (such as temperature, radiation, or pressure)⁸Turner, A. P. F., Karube, I., & Wilson, G. S. (Eds.). (1987). Biosensors: Fundamentals and Applications. Oxford University Press.. The signal resulting from a biological, chemical, or physical interaction or reaction is converted into a measurable signal – electrical, optical, mechanical, etc. – that can be quantified and analyzed.

• Biocomputing: A field that addresses the utilization of materials and biological systems to perform calculations, process information, or resolve computational problems. This field encompasses the application of advanced computational methods for the understanding, analysis, and visualization of complex biological systems⁹Xu, J. (2025). Biological Computing. Springer Nature..

• Biodevices: Devices that integrate biological components with engineering or electronic technology to measure, diagnose, or influence biological systems. These devices function at various scales (from macro to micro) and are utilized to develop medical, environmental, or industrial applications¹⁰Mazurenko, S., Bidmanova, S., Kotlanova, M., Damborsky, J., & Prokop, Z. (2018). Sensitive operation of enzyme-based biodevices by advanced signal processing. PLOS ONE, 13(6), e0198913..

• Biochips: Miniature chips (micro/nano-scale) that integrate biological components with electronic or micromechanical systems, utilized for the detection, analysis, or monitoring of biological processes¹¹Azizipour, N., Avazpour, R., Rosenzweig, D. H., Sawan, M., & Ajji, A. (2020). Evolution of biochip technology: A review from lab-on-a-chip to organ-on-a-chip. Micromachines (Basel), 11(6), 599.. This category of technology further includes advanced microfluidic platforms, such as Lab-on-a-chip and Organ-on-chip, enabling complex laboratory processes to be conducted on a diminutive scale.
  
  • Lab-on-a-chip: A microfluidic device engineered to streamline complex laboratory processes – such as sampling, reaction, separation, and analysis – transferring them to a singular, compact platform that facilitates precise biological and chemical testing in field conditions, rapidly and efficiently, while utilizing minimal volumes of fluids.
  • Organ-on-chip: A miniature microfluidic device that replicates the structure, environment, and functionality of a human organ or tissue, incorporating live cell culture within a controlled flow system for research, medical applications, and drug development.

• Biohybrid Robots: Biohybrid Robots: Robots that integrate biological components with mechanical, electronic, or computational systems, enabling mechanical actions, environmental sensing, or adaptation to fluctuating conditions¹²Webster-Wood, V. A., Guix, M., Xu, N. W., Behkam, B., Sato, H., Sarkar, D., Sanchez, S., Shimizu, M., & Parker, K. K. (2023). Biohybrid robots: recent progress, challenges, and perspectives. Bioinspiration & Biomimetics, 18(1), 015001..

2. Bioengineering:

• Bioprinting: A form of 3D printing utilizing “biological inks” (combinations of living cells and biocompatible materials) to construct tissues or biological structures for the purposes of treatment, research, or drug development¹³Mobaraki, M., Ghaffari, M., Yazdanpanah, A., Luo, Y., & Mills, D. K. (2020). Bioinks and bioprinting: A focused review. Bioprinting, 18, e00080..

• Synthetic Biology: A field dedicated to the design and creation of novel biological parts and systems, or the reengineering of existing biological systems to perform specific functions – such as the production of drugs, fuels, biological materials, or biological sensors¹⁴Roberts, M. A. J., Cranenburgh, R. M., Stevens, M. P., & Oyston, P. C. F. (2013). Synthetic biology: biology by design. Microbiology (Reading), 159(Pt 7), 1219–1220..

• Bioremediation: A process employing living organisms to decompose, neutralize, or eliminate contaminants within the environment¹⁵Hlihor, R. M., Gavrilescu, M., Tavares, T., Favier, L., & Olivieri, G. (2017). Bioremediation: An overview on current practices, advances, and new perspectives in environmental pollution treatment [Editorial]. BioMed Research International, 2017, 6327610..

• Metabolic Engineering: The modification of metabolic pathways in microorganisms to enhance and optimize the production of desired metabolites, biofuels, drugs, or valuable chemicals¹⁶Volk, M. J., Tran, V. G., Tan, S.-I., Mishra, S., Fatma, Z., Boob, A., Li, H., Xue, P., Martin, T. A., & Zhao, H. (2023). Metabolic engineering: Methodologies and applications. Chemical Reviews, 123(9), 5521-5570..

• Optogenetics: A technique enabling light-mediated control of the activity of genetically engineered cells, facilitating precise and dynamic regulation of biological processes in real-time¹⁷Deisseroth, K. (2011). Optogenetics. Nature Methods, 8(1), 26–29..

3. Bionics for Machinery:

• Bioactuators: Devices that utilize biological systems to generate mechanical motion or force in response to stimuli, employed to actuate or control movements in soft robotics, medical devices, and various engineering applications¹⁸Ricotti, L., Trimmer, B., Feinberg, A. W., Raman, R., Parker, K. K., Bashir, R., Sitti, M., Martel, S., Dario, P., & Menciassi, A. (2017). Biohybrid actuators for robotics: A review of devices actuated by living cells. Science Robotics, 2(12), eaaq0495..

• Biorobotics: Robotic systems that replicate biological processes, incorporate biological components, or establish communication with living systems¹⁹Blackiston, D., Kriegman, S., Bongard, J., & Levin, M. (2023). Biological robots: Perspectives on an emerging interdisciplinary field. Soft Robotics, 10(4), 674–686..

• Biomachine Interfaces: Interfaces that connect biological systems to devices or technological systems, facilitating communication, control, or information exchange and interaction²⁰Knothe Tate, M. L., Detamore, M., Capadona, J. R., Woolley, A., & Knothe, U. (2016). Engineering and commercialization of human-device interfaces, from bone to brain. Biomaterials, 95, 35-46..

• Biohybrid Robots

• Bio-integrated soft robotics: Soft robotic systems that physically and functionally integrate living biological components, enabling delicate and intelligent operation while ensuring full compatibility with the biological environment²¹Feinberg, A. W. (2015). Biological soft robotics. Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering, 17, 243-265..

• Living materials: Materials that contain living cells or active biological components, capable of growth, environmental responsiveness, or execution of advanced biological functions²²Shang, L.; Shao, C.; Chi, J.; Zhao, Y. Living Materials for Life Healthcare. Accounts of Materials Research 2021, 2 (1), 59–70..

4. Digital Twins for Biology:

• Biocomputing

• Digital Organs: Sophisticated digital models of biological organs, developed through the integration of biological, physiological, and genetic data with computer simulations, intended to represent, predict, and analyze the functionality of living organs²³Hansen, J., Jain, A. R., Nenov, P., Robinson, P. N., & Iyengar, R. (2024). From transcriptomics to digital twins of organ function. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 12, 1240384..

5. Biomanufacturing:

• Cell-Free Biotechnology: A methodology for managing biochemical systems under artificial conditions outside of living cells, allowing for enhanced precision in controlling environmental variables, response speed, and flexibility in biological design and manufacturing²⁴r, B. J., Vögeli, B., Landwehr, G. M., Bogart, J. W., Karim, A. S., & Jewett, M. C. (2021). Toward sustainable, cell-free biomanufacturing. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 69, 136–144..

• Bioprocess Engineering:A discipline of engineering that focuses on the design, development, optimization, and operation of industrial processes reliant on living organisms or biological components for the production of materials such as pharmaceuticals, proteins, chemicals, biofuels, food, beverages, and more²⁵Koutinas, M., Kiparissides, A., Pistikopoulos, E. N., & Mantalaris, A. (2013). Bioprocess systems engineering: Transferring traditional process engineering principles to industrial biotechnology. Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal, 3, e201210022..

• Synthetic Biology

• Bioprinting

• Metabolic Engineering

This level encompasses fundamental technologies that establish the infrastructure necessary for bioconvergence to occur, despite not being classified as bioconvergence themselves. These technologies facilitate the analysis, design, processing, or interaction with biological systems. The absence of these technologies would preclude the development of bioconvergence platforms; they form the foundational elements upon which more sophisticated systems are constructed.

Consistent with the previous level, the enabling technologies are categorized according to their alignment with the core concepts from the first level. Similar to the preceding level, certain technologies are classified under multiple core concepts (e.g., carbon nanotubes). This categorization reflects the interdisciplinary character of bioconvergence and the profound integration of disparate domains of knowledge.

1. Bioelectronics:

• Microfluidics: This field addresses the dynamics of flow, control, manipulation, and routing of minuscule volumes of fluids (generally microliters to nanoliters) within microscopic channels²⁶Hajam, M. I., & Khan, M. M. (2024). Microfluidics: A concise review of the history, principles, design, applications, and future outlook. Biomaterials Science, 12, 211..

• Molecular recognition: This biochemical phenomenon involves the selective recognition and interaction between molecules, typically predicated on a precise congruence in structure, size, and chemistry²⁷Kim, D. C., & Kang, D. J. (2008). Molecular recognition and specific interactions for biosensing applications. Sensors (Basel), 8(10), 6605–6641..

• Graphene transistors: These electronic transistors utilize graphene (a two-dimensional arrangement of carbon atoms) in lieu of silicon, facilitating exceptionally rapid electron conduction, minimized energy consumption, and nanoscale functionality²⁸Cai, Q., Ye, J., Jahannia, B., Wang, H., Patil, C., Redoy, R. A. F., Sidam, A., Sameer, S., Aljohani, S., Umer, M., Alsulami, A., Shibli, E., Arkook, B., Al-Hadeethi, Y., Dalir, H., & Heidari, E. (2024). Comprehensive study and design of graphene transistor. Micromachines, 15(3), 406..

• Carbon nanotubes: Nanoscale cylindrical configurations constituted of rolled graphene exhibit high sensitivity to biological variations and possess remarkable mechanical, thermal, and electronic properties, rendering them suitable for use as reinforcing materials, conductors, sensors, or electronic components²⁹Brito, C. L.; Silva, J. V.; Gonzaga, R. V.; La-Scalea, M. A.; Giarolla, J.; Ferreira, E. I. A Review on Carbon Nanotubes Family of Nanomaterials and Their Health Field. ACS Omega 2024, 9 (8), 8687-8708..

2. Bioengineering:

• Multi-omics: An advanced methodology in biological and medical research that integrates data from multiple layers of information to achieve a thorough comprehension of biological systems, diseases, or cellular functions³⁰Gutierrez Reyes, C. D., Alejo-Jacuinde, G., Perez Sanchez, B., Chavez Reyes, J., Onigbinde, S., Mogut, D., Hernández-Jasso, I., Calderón-Vallejo, D., Quintanar, J. L., & Mechref, Y. (2024). Multi Omics Applications in Biological Systems. Current Issues in Molecular Biology, 46(6), 5777-5793..
  • Genomics: This discipline pertains to the examination of the entire genome – namely, the DNA sequence of an organism – which encompasses gene identification, genome structure, gene function, and their interrelations.
  • Proteomics: This field focuses on the identification, quantification, and analysis of the complete array of proteins (the proteome) produced within a cell or organism at specific times and under designated conditions.
  • Transcriptomics: This area investigates all transcription products (mRNA) resulting from gene expression in cells, offering a dynamic representation of gene activity, cellular contexts, and differentiation, which aids in elucidating gene regulation, tissue variances, and disease progression.
  • Metabolomics: The study of all metabolites (small molecules such as sugars, amino acids, lipids, etc.) present in a cell or organism.
  • Single-cell omics: A set of advanced techniques enabling the assessment of genetic, epigenetic, transcriptional, or metabolic information at the individual cell level, thereby uncovering variations among cells within an ostensibly uniform population.

• Bioinformatics: This field focuses on the creation and utilization of algorithms, computational tools, and databases for the analysis, processing, and interpretation of biological data³¹Luscombe NM, Greenbaum D, Gerstein M. What is bioinformatics? A proposed definition and overview of the field. Methods Inf Med. 2001;40(4):346-58. PMID: 11552348..

• Gene editing: A biological technique facilitating the targeted, precise, and controlled alteration of DNA sequences within the genome of living organisms, with the objectives of correcting, removing, or adding genetic segments³²Khalil, A. M. (2020). The genome editing revolution: review. Journal of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, 18, 68..
  • CRISPR: A naturally occurring biological system found in bacteria that has been adapted as a tool for precise genetic editing. This system operates through the engagement of the Cas enzyme to target specific DNA sequences, guided by an RNA molecule.

• Microfluidics

3. Bionics for Machinery

• Biomaterials: Synthetic or natural materials that are adapted to function in a biological environment, characterized by non-toxicity and the capacity to integrate into biological processes³³Zhang, K., Ma, B., Hu, K., Yuan, B., Sun, X., Song, X., Tang, Z., Lin, H., Zhu, X., Zheng, Y., García, A. J., Mikos, A. G., Anderson, J. M., & Zhang, X. (2022). Evidence-based biomaterials research. Bioactive Materials, 15, 495–503..

• Soft Robotics: Robots constructed from soft and flexible materials, such as silicone, rubber, or biological tissues, designed to emulate natural movement, adapt to varying environments, and ensure safety in applications across medicine, industry, and agriculture³⁴Wang, Y., Wang, Y., Mushtaq, R. T., & Wei, Q. (2024). Advancements in soft robotics: A comprehensive review on actuation methods, materials, and applications. Polymers, 16(8), 1087..

• Carbon nanotubes

•  Graphene composites

4. Digital Twins for Biology

• IoT (Internet of Things): A comprehensive network of interconnected devices and sensors, including biological entities, integrated through information systems to facilitate the collection and analysis of extensive data in complex environments³⁵Kumar, S., Tiwari, P., & Zymbler, M. (2019). Internet of Things is a revolutionary approach for future technology enhancement: a review. Journal of Big Data, 6, Article 111..

• AI/ML: Technologies enabling computers and systems to learn from data and execute intelligent tasks, encompassing pattern recognition, prediction, decision-making, and automation, with a focus on self-learning and performance enhancement over time³⁶Helm, J. M., Swiergosz, A. M., Haeberle, H. S., Karnuta, J. M., Schaffer, J. L., Krebs, V. E., Spitzer, A. I., & Ramkumar, P. N. (2020). Machine learning and artificial intelligence: Definitions, applications, and future directions. Current Reviews in Musculoskeletal Medicine, 13(1), 69–76..

• Systems Biology: An interdisciplinary research domain that merges biological data with mathematical, computational, and bioinformatic models to elucidate how interactions among biological components—such as genes, proteins, and cells—culminate in the overall functionality and dynamic behavior of complete biological systems³⁷Spivey, A. (2004). Systems biology: The big picture. Environmental Health Perspectives, 112(16), A938–A943..

• Computational Modeling: A mathematical-computational approach employed to develop models of complex systems, facilitating simulation, analysis, and prediction of their behavior under varied conditions. This method encompasses equations, algorithms, and computer simulations, serving as a research instrument across diverse fields, including biology, physics, economics and more³⁸Quinn J. M., Moody J. W. (2020). Computational modeling. In Atkinson P., Delamont S., Williams R. A., Cernat A., Sakshaug J. W. (Eds.), Sage research methods foundations. Sage Publications..

5. Biomanufacturing

• Microfluidics

• Biomolecules: Organic molecules synthesized by living organisms, critical for constructing cellular structures, transferring genetic information, and regulating biological processes³⁹Shah, D. (2023). Biomolecules: The elements that make up life. International Research Journal of Basic and Clinical Studies, 8(4), 1-3..

• Bioreactor Systems: Engineered systems designed for the cultivation or maintenance of microorganisms or other biological components under regulated conditions to produce biological materials or engineered tissues. Such systems provide precise control over environmental parameters, including temperature, pH, oxygen levels, nutrition, and fermentation⁴⁰Palladino, F., Marcelino, P. R. F., Schlogl, A. E., José, Á. H. M., Rodrigues, R. C. L. B., Fabrino, D. L., Santos, I. J. B., & Rosa, C. A. (2024). Bioreactors: Applications and innovations for a sustainable and healthy future-A critical review. Applied Sciences, 14(20), 9346..