Hydrogen is a gas used in various industries, mainly as a raw material for producing fertilizers and chemicals (55% of hydrogen use is in ammonia production, 25% in oil refining, and 10% in methanol production). According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), hydrogen usage in other sectors currently includes transportation, aviation (rocket fuel), industrial heating, iron production, power and heat generation for buildings, and electricity production in general. However, these only account for 0.04% of global hydrogen consumption.
Approximately 22% of hydrogen used worldwide is a byproduct of chemical plants and industries. Green hydrogen can be produced using renewable energy through electrolysis—splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen using an electric current. About 4% of the world’s hydrogen is created this way. Hydrogen can also be produced from natural gas (grey hydrogen; 47% of global hydrogen production) and coal (brown hydrogen; 27% of global hydrogen production) through pyrolysis and gasification. Different types of hydrogen are distinguished by their production methods and how they address the carbon emissions generated in the process.
Currently, additional uses for hydrogen are being considered, given its properties and potential applications:
Hydrogen is abundant in nature but rarely in its pure form; it is typically combined with other atoms (such as in water and methane). Hydrogen contains almost three times more energy per unit of weight than fossil fuels. This means less hydrogen is needed to perform the same task. However, producing, storing, and transporting hydrogen requires a lot of energy.
Hydrogen is a cleaner energy carrier than the alternatives, depending on how it is produced and its CO2 emissions.
Hydrogen can be stored for several months, unlike renewable energies like solar and wind power. Additionally, producing hydrogen using renewable energies allows for storage that energy.
Hydrogen improves access to energy in isolated and remote locations because it can be stored.
Hydrogen enhances the reliability of the power grid and strengthens energy security.
Hydrogen can be used as an energy carrier in places where renewable energy has yet to replace polluting energy sources—such as aviation, shipping, trucking, and iron production.
As of the time of writing this review, 27 companies dealing with hydrogen have been identified in Israel, of which Israel Innovation Authority supported 12. The largest field in terms of the number of Israeli companies is hydrogen production, but there are also companies in storage, the use of hydrogen in fuel cells, hydrogen-powered drones, and more.
Hydrogen as a Climate Disruptor
Hydrogen and Climate Plans
Hydrogen development and production are directly influenced by global programs to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which dictate progress in the field. As part of the Paris Agreement, signed in 2016 following the UN Climate Change Conference, international targets were set for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. It was determined that by 2030, 45% of the energy used should come from renewable sources, and by 2050, the goal is to achieve net-zero emissions or at least capture the emissions that do occur. A significant emphasis was placed on hydrogen as a renewable energy carrier.
Given their high utility, renewable energies like solar, wind, and electric batteries are currently the primary focus. However, as hydrogen technology develops, it will help solve bottlenecks and become increasingly necessary, particularly in areas where other energy sources cannot be used (for example, when long-term energy storage is required).
The expectation is that hydrogen use will grow by 5-7 times its current levels by 2050, with hydrogen accounting for 15-20% of global energy demand. By then, 85% of hydrogen is expected to be green and 15% blue.
The current situation:
2021 hydrogen use increased by 5%, mainly due to activity recovery in the chemicals and refining sectors after COVID-19. Although hydrogen use peaked this year, most of the hydrogen used is still non-green, resulting in a high carbon footprint.
Demand for new applications in areas such as transportation, Direct Reduction of Iron (DRI), electricity, and buildings (as will be detailed later) increased by 60% in 2021, but this still accounts for only 0.04% of global hydrogen demand. Most of the market is concentrated on vehicle transportation, mainly due to increased FCEV use, especially in long-distance trucks in China. Successes came from projects that demonstrated significant edge capabilities and entered into use: chemical production (Iberdrola-Fert Iberia project in Spain), iron and steel (Hybrit project in Sweden), and electricity generation (JERA project in Japan).
Hydrogen developers expect investments to grow exponentially shortly, especially in light of government incentives. However, changes in laws, regulations, and attitudes towards hydrogen still need to be processed in Europe and the US, which are essential for the field’s progress, so it’s too early to assess the change.
Due to COVID-19, investment in hydrogen areas decreased, causing a delay in development. Only in February 2023 did the field return to its market value in November 2020. Also, starting in 2022, significant investments in projects will be seen, and less will be seen in companies engaged in developing hydrogen technologies. On the other hand, in 2022, startups developing new technologies in the field raised record amounts of equity capital. There are fewer new initiatives in designing and producing hydrogen technologies despite an inevitable increase in demand. However, starting in 2025, we anticipate that the developments announced in recent years will be used, following the proof of the feasibility of specific technologies. As a result, we expect to see the implementation of new technologies in the field.
To promote hydrogen as a global disruptor, R&D, infrastructure construction, and international cooperation must continue to be promoted. The aim is to reduce production costs and make hydrogen more competitive with other energy sources.
Green hydrogen production in the world:
In recent years, projects and financial investments in electrolysis have been increasing. There is a global expectation for the introducin more electrolyzers and putting them into use, alongside industrial alignment, for an increase in the availability of hydrogen for use soon. Reducing the cost of electrolyzers and renewable electricity will lead to cheaper green hydrogen, which can be more affordable than gray and blue hydrogen (which requires investment in carbon capture). However, blue hydrogen may be preferred over green in countries with natural gas reserves.
In 2021, global green production increased by 70% compared to 2020, mainly due to the completion of an infrastructure project for China’s world’s largest electrolyzer. Currently, there are about 460 electrolyzer construction and development projects worldwide. By the end of 2022, the amount of green hydrogen produced was expected to triple that of 2021 – 40% of production in China and 33% in Europe.
There is uncertainty regarding the amount of green production in the future due to delays and problems in various projects; only 4% of the projects announced so far for green hydrogen production are infrastructures under construction or have received funding approval. However, based on all existing projects today and their expected progress, it is estimated that 2030 clean hydrogen production will reach 16-24 MT per year compared to almost 1 MT in 2021. The increase in investment in electrolyzers in recent years was notable in areas of use related to industry, refining, and mobility (ibid., page 87).
Reducing carbon dioxide emissions in current hydrogen uses:
As of 2021, the average carbon emission in hydrogen production was 12-13 CO2-eq/kg H2. The aspiration: by 2030, a decrease to 6-7 CO2-eq/kg H2, and by 2050, less than 1 CO2-eq/kg H2. Therefore, investment in clean hydrogen production infrastructures must continue. Hydrogen, used as an energy carrier, will help reduce emissions. However, using hydrogen still leads to specific challenges. Carbon emissions, among other things, are caused by hydrogen production, which consumes electricity, meaning the process is electricity-hydrogen-electricity. When comparing the carbon emissions of hydrogen integrators and those including direct electrification, direct electrification leads to lower emissions than hydrogen integrators.
Barriers to making hydrogen a disruptor
Price of green hydrogen
The economic barrier, in the form of the high price of green hydrogen, is the most significant. The price is determined by three parameters: the price of the electrolyzer, the price of the renewable electricity that powers it, and the price of transporting/storing the hydrogen. As of the end of 2021, the price range of gray hydrogen is estimated between $1-2 per kg. In contrast, the price of green hydrogen ranges between $6-12 per kg, depending on the type of renewable energy used and the location. By 2030, the price of green hydrogen is expected to drop to $4-8 per kg; based on this assessment, electrolyzers will decrease as their production worldwide increases, and the price of electricity from renewable sources will continue to decline. In areas with high availability of cheap renewable energy throughout the day, the price may drop below $3 per kg by 2030. However, the price decrease is not guaranteed and depends on promoting the implementation of renewable energies alongside investment in R&D to reduce production costs. There are various estimates for pricing hydrogen using different production methods.
Production of electrolyzers
Currently, there needs to be more extensive industrial production of electrolyzers. Various developments are required in engineering, materials, and production processes to promote the technology and reduce its cost. Even according to optimistic scenarios that consider tangible technological progress and cheaper renewable energy for production, green hydrogen is not expected to be more affordable than gray hydrogen in the coming years. To encourage production, regulatory activity is required to create a market for green hydrogen, which will bridge the price gaps between it and polluting hydrogen. This activity can include a carbon tax (which will make polluting hydrogen more expensive) or legislation of a standard for low-carbon fuels (Low-carbon Fuel Standards), which legally limits the amount of emissions allowed in industry and requires the purchase of a certain amount of alternative fuels to meet the quota.
Hydrogen transport and storage:
To fulfill a vision where hydrogen integrates into many uses, there is a need to establish extensive transport and storage infrastructures. Transport infrastructures will include many kilometers of pipes for land transport and facilities that will allow sea transport and unloading at ports. In addition, hydrogen storage facilities will be required, either physically by liquefaction or compression or chemically using various carriers. One solution is to use existing infrastructures for natural gas transport. Still, this change requires investment in adapting existing infrastructures to hydrogen and completing new required infrastructures where existing infrastructures are insufficient.
Environmental problems:
Although green hydrogen does not cause carbon emissions, its use can affect the environment. For example, hydrogen production by electrolysis consumes water and will require the use of a local water source; using hydrogen to generate electricity can cause emissions of NOx pollutants; hydrogen storage can be dangerous due to its explosive and flammable nature; production of storage containers is polluting, and when the containers are taken out of use, they become environmental waste. Beyond the ecological risks, the fact that hydrogen is dangerous may cause public opposition to establishing hydrogen infrastructures near residential areas, delaying infrastructure deployment.
Future uses
In parallel with the common uses of hydrogen mentioned in the introduction above, there is potential for integrating hydrogen in additional fields to varying degrees. The extent of engagement with these integrations has increased in recent years (based on the number of patents up to 2020 in the relevant fields for potential uses of hydrogen).
In addition to the fields detailed below, there are other potential fields for hydrogen integration: high-temperature heating in industries, hydrogen-powered forklifts, hydrogen production from plastic, etc.
Below is a review of potential hydrogen uses, starting with transportation integration. It should be noted that in vehicles, hydrogen can be integrated as fuel in an internal combustion engine, through fuel cells to generate electricity in electric motors, or a combination of both methods.
Air transportation:
The use of hydrogen in air transportation has been under examination in recent years, with the USA leading in the number of patents in the field. Currently, there are no projects in the industrial production stage, but several are in the pilot and examination stages. Airbus’s ZEROe project is perhaps the most prominent, focusing on developing large hydrogen aircraft for commercial operation by 2035. Moreover, Airbus and CFM are building a jet turbine capable of burning hydrogen. CFM, Airbus, GE, and Safran are collaborating on a program to develop hydrogen-powered engines for larger aircraft. Rolls-Royce is also researching hydrogen-powered engines for smaller aircraft, including narrow-body airliners.
Airbus is also researching fuel cells for integration in aircraft. Other companies are planning smaller hydrogen aircraft, including innovations in hydrogen tank replacement, with demonstrations planned for the near future.
However, there are difficulties in integrating hydrogen in air transportation, some of which are general characteristics of integrating hydrogen in various fields. Among the challenges in using hydrogen in the aviation industry lies the need for innovative fuel storage and supply methods, lightweight and low-cost storage tanks, and airframes that contain these tanks. Also, a minimal increase in patent registration in hydrogen integration in the aviation industry between 2011 and 2020 was observed.
Maritime transportation:
In maritime transportation, there are mainly projects in the research and development stage, with Europe leading in patent registration. In 2022, the Global Maritime Forum published data on research from around the world in maritime transportation focusing on zero carbon emissions. The report shows that engagement with hydrogen has increased in recent years in projects dealing with fuels for naval transportation, leading compared to projects using other types of energy. Many projects deal with small vessels and their hydrogen propulsion, emphasizing fuel cells (about 60% of the projects) and combustion engines operated using hydrogen.
Several research projects in maritime transportation focus on determining the most effective fuel production method. Of these projects, 59% are centered on green hydrogen and 3% on blue hydrogen. The interest in hydrogen extends to its use in producing ammonia and methanol, which can act as environmentally friendly energy carriers in the industry. Additionally, hydrogen research projects receive the highest level of funding among all fuel-related research. The accompanying graph illustrates the number of marine technology projects prioritizing fuel development up to the first quarter of 2022.
The IAE argues that the feasibility of replacing fossil fuels with hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels must be proven at the beginning of the current decade to ensure a significant decrease in carbon emissions by the end of the decade.
Vehicle transportation:
In the private car industry, Japan is the leader in patent registration (39% of patents). Meanwhile, China is the leader in the production of buses and trucks. In general, when examining the use of renewable energies in the automotive industry, electric vehicles powered by batteries are still more efficient and developed than hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV). Thus, the energy efficiency of an electric battery in a car is about 70% (product relative to primary energy), and that of hydrogen fuel cells is about 26%. Although the use of electric vehicles is preferable in many respects to hydrogen propulsion, currently, the use of electricity is not sufficient nor suitable for specific needs – for long trips, for carrying heavy loads, and for rapid refueling. This is the area where the massive integration of hydrogen is being examined.
Hydrogen has been use more quickly in road transportation than shipping and aviation, primarily in fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) technology, especially for heavy trucks. In 2022, there was a 40% increase in FCEV vehicles compared to 2021, totaling 72,000 hydrogen-powered vehicles worldwide. 80% of these vehicles are cars (mainly in Korea, Japan, and California, USA, where hydrogen refueling infrastructures are available). 10% of the vehicles are trucks and 10% are buses. It’s noteworthy that China dominates the global hydrogen bus and truck market. As a result of global policies pressuring truck manufacturers to produce more vehicles using non-carbon-emitting fuel, the market is expected to expand worldwide.
In the private car industry, continued technological development is observed, alongside developments in electric vehicles, with an increase in patent registration of more than 7% annually between 2011 and 2020. Today, technology development in the field has already been proven, and there is even point production, but difficulties arise around mass production. The various hydrogen applications depend on the readiness stages of hydrogen integration technologies in transportation (ibid., p. 64).
Rail transportation:
Currently, the leading developer in the field of trains in the world is Germany, which in August 2022 launched 14 trains powered by hydrogen, the first in the world to do so. Today, there are only 33 patents in this field, but global interest in combining trains with hydrogen is growing, especially in areas where it is impossible to convert trains to electric power or batteries. Countries such as Italy, France, and Poland have already ordered trains that are expected to be used in the coming years. Other companies worldwide are making considerable efforts to develop trains that will be used in the coming years, such as companies in California and Australia.
Iron production industry (Direct Reduction of Iron – DRI):
The primary integration of hydrogen in this industry includes hydrogen-based DRI and also the integration of hydrogen in DRI. In this process, chemical removal of oxygen from iron ore in its solid form is performed. Currently, efforts are being made to switch to using green (zero emissions) and blue (capturing emissions) hydrogen in this industry instead of the traditional way, which includes fossil fuels. A DRI project, including blue hydrogen, was launched in 2016 in the UAE and implemented. However, this is the only project in the field already in productive activity, and there are no other similar projects of this scale in development. Projects using green hydrogen are also feasible, and the most advanced of them is the HYBRIT project, which in 2021 succeeded in producing several tons of steel using this method; however, this project is still in the development stages. In general, patents related to the use of hydrogen in the iron and steel industry are led by Europe and Japan.
Buildings:
Currently, attempts are being made to use hydrogen in electricity and heating in buildings. However, at present, integrating hydrogen in this field will not necessarily provide better returns than using other renewable energies, partly due to the high cost of hydrogen and the need to develop new infrastructures to progress in the area. Between 2011 and 2020, an increase in patent registration was observed, mainly from Japan in the field of fuel cell integration, but a decline followed it.
In Europe, Japan, Korea, and the USA, fuel cells are being integrated into the field, providing heat and electricity (sometimes backup electricity) to residential buildings, sports centers, shopping malls, hospitals, server centers, and more. Most fuel cells use natural gas or oil in hydrogen production, but there are projects in development aimed at converting these energies into clean hydrogen using fuel cells. Additionally, fuel cells that use only hydrogen already exist in the market and were even used in the Olympic Village in 2020.
In some countries, the ability to integrate hydrogen into the natural gas network to certain degree is being examined. When integration becomes possible from a safety perspective in private homes, it will be possible to use it in existing and new boilers and cooking stoves. Meanwhile, several projects are examining the integration, such as the HyDeploy project in Britain, which succeeded in demonstrating such integration in 2022, or a similar project in California that in 2021 showed that hydrogen integration does not present risks to existing infrastructure and home equipment. Alongside the integration, which is still in development, an examination of using 100% hydrogen in existing infrastructures (for example, in boilers) is also being conducted.
Hydrogen in heating systems is being examined, as more than 90% of heating systems in the world rely on fossil fuels. In 2023, a hydrogen-powered heating system is expected to provide electricity and heating to an area in Minnesota, supplying hot and cold water to buildings in the regional network. This is a pilot project aimed at increasing understanding of the use of hydrogen in existing networks. Alongside this, the energy efficiency of an electric heat pump is about 270% (product relative to primary energy), and hydrogen-based heating is about 46%.
Electricity Production:
Currently, electricity produced in combination with hydrogen accounts for less than 0.2% of the global electricity industry, and in production, hydrogen created as a byproduct in other chemical processes is combined with various gases. The infrastructures for using hydrogen to produce electricity exist, and in some places, it is possible to integrate hydrogen into existing infrastructures that use other energies. For example, a gas turbine in South Korea has operated on hydrogen for 25 years. Despite this, only specific percentages of hydrogen can usually be used. Research examines the possibility of using 100% hydrogen for electricity production by 2030. Fuel cells can be used in buildings and larger electrical systems to produce electricity, especially when there is no need to generate a large amount of electricity or when flexibility in the electrical system is needed (due to the possibility of storing and transporting hydrogen).
Who is investing in the world?
Government Investments and Support
Governments worldwide are promoting the establishment of electrolyzers, believing that local hydrogen will meet the industry’s needs to reduce emissions and increase energy independence and competitiveness in the country’s energy market.
Some significant programs, for example, include:
USA: In 2022, legislation passed in Congress to fund and subsidize various types of renewable energies, called The Inflation Reduction Act (IRA). The legislation defines a tax credit on green hydrogen production of up to $3 per kg of clean hydrogen, bringing its price closer to that of gray/brown hydrogen and increasing its competitiveness in the existing hydrogen market. Also, in the law passed by Congress at the end of 2022 dealing with infrastructure (The Bipartisan Infrastructure Law), a budget of $8 billion was allocated to fund the establishment of hubs for hydrogen production and use. Recently (June 2023), the new roadmap of the US government in this subject was published.
European Union: In 2022, two projects in the field of hydrogen (Important Projects of Common European Interest – IPCEI) were approved in the European Union. Together, these offer 10.6 billion euros to companies developing projects in the field of hydrogen (production and storage technologies, infrastructure establishment, and more).
UK—Net Zero Hydrogen Fund: This fund has a budget of up to £240 million, divided into two parts: funding engineering developments to promote the commercial implementation of hydrogen technologies and funding (CAPEX) hydrogen production.
Germany: In 2021, the government invested 7 billion euros in hydrogen projects, including building electrolyzers, increasing the use of green hydrogen in industry and transportation, etc. In addition, 2 billion euros will be invested in establishing international trade with countries with more suitable conditions for green hydrogen production.
Netherlands: In 2020, the government released its strategy regarding hydrogen. Recently (June 2023), the government decided to increase the existing budget for green hydrogen production, which stood at 9 billion euros, by 1 billion euros next year and 3.9 billion euros for the following years.
Australia – Hydrogen Headstart program: In May 2023, the government announced that it would support hydrogen production from renewable sources or use it to produce follow-up products with 2 billion Australian dollars (1.31 billion US dollars). The funding will support 2 to 3 large projects with a total capacity of about 1000 megawatts of electrolysis.
Planned Projects Worldwide
As of January 2023, over 1,000 significant projects in the field of hydrogen (production, transportation, and use) have been announced worldwide, of which 112 projects are on a scale of at least 1GW of energy from electrolysis. The development of the projects will require $320 billion by 2030. However, almost half of the projects are in the initial stage – announced but have yet to reach planning, and funding has yet to be secured. The total final investments in the field cover only 10% of the $320 billion required to finance the announced projects.
The most significant projects announced in the world so far include:
Saudi Arabia, NEOM project: The largest planned project in the world, designed to produce ammonia from green hydrogen using up to 4GW of renewable energy by 2026.
China, SINOPEC company:
A green hydrogen production project for local use in coal processing plants in Mongolia.
Finland, Plug Power company: The company has three planned projects with a total capacity of 2.2 GW.
Netherlands, Shell:
A project to establish a 200MW capacity electrolyzer and build a pipeline to transport it to the industrial area of Rotterdam so that it can replace gray hydrogen used in the company’s refinery.
Australia, AREH project:
This is a planned project for renewable energy production with a maximum scope of 26GW, hydrogen production that will be used in heavy equipment for metal mining in Western Australia.
Turning Hydrogen into a Disruptor in Israel
Most of the hydrogen used in Israel is gray hydrogen from industrial production facilities and is produced as follows:
1. Refining and cracking of fossil fuels in the petrochemical industry. Bazan is the largest producer in Israel (from natural gas).
2. Chlor-alkali electrolysis (hydrogen is a byproduct of the reaction of chlorine with caustic). The producers in this process are chemical industry companies (such as ICL and Adama).
Hydrogen is also produced in Israel by electrolysis, usually in small facilities near the point of consumption for small consumers. Water electrolysis requires a renewable energy source to produce green hydrogen. In Israel, the most relevant energy source for this is solar energy. Israeli entrepreneurial companies in the field of solar energy promote PV projects for green hydrogen production in various countries – such as a project by Marom Energy that has partnered with an energy company from Morocco to develop facilities in Morocco and projects by Solegreen company.
Prominent Pilots in Israel
Hydrogen trucks pilot: A pilot of Bazan and Sonol companies will soon begin, and three hydrogen-powered trucks will be used. For the pilot, the first hydrogen refueling station in Israel was established. Currently, gray hydrogen is used, with plans to shift production to green hydrogen from renewable energy.
Hydrogen Valley: Doral Hydrogen won the Ministry of Energy grant to develop a green hydrogen production pilot in Yotvata. For the initiative, Doral signed an agreement with H2Pro, which produces electrolyzers.
Green hydrogen production pilot in the Arava: The Eilat-Eilot Renewable Energy Company (PBC) works to promote renewable energies in the Arava and Gulf of Eilat. The company is promoting a future pilot in collaboration with Bazan and Noy Fund to establish a pilot facility for green hydrogen production (from water and solar energy) in the Timna industrial area.
Energy storage research institute: In 2023, Bar-Ilan University and the Technion won a call for proposals from the Ministry of Energy, in which they will also deal with hydrogen storage, and in which 130 million shekels will be invested over five years.
Potential Use in Israel
Recently, the Ministry of Energy’s strategy for integrating hydrogen into the energy sector was published, according to which preparations should be made for the use and production of hydrogen in the coming decade. These are the sectors with potential for hydrogen use:
Electricity storage: The State of Israel is dense, and its population is expected to grow; in addition, most of the renewable energy used today in Israel is solar, as wind resources are limited, but the available space for solar energy is shrinking. These characteristics require planning of the future energy sector, including energy storage solutions for continuous electricity supply. Hydrogen can replace the use of gas for electricity production and ensure energy stability and security.
Heavy industry: The sector is small compared to Europe, and it is estimated that most industrial plants will be electricity-based. However, several processes require high heat and fuel burning, which are responsible for most of the emissions from industry in Israel. There is a benefit in converting these plants to hydrogen. Some plants may move to a relevant area: next to ports or places where several hydrogen-consuming plants will be clustered.
Transportation: Electrification may solve the problem of heavy land transportation (trucks) in Israel, as trucks do not travel particularly long daily distances. If such a solution is implemented, it will be preferred over hydrogen propulsion. Global trends will determine the potential for use in aviation and shipping.
Hydrogen production: Israel has potential for solar electricity and water (electrolysis) production. In addition, there is potential for hydrogen production using natural gas, assuming there will be commercial carbon capture technologies in the future. With necessary adaptations, natural gas transportation infrastructure may be suitable for hydrogen transportation.
Ministry of Energy Roadmap
In the publication of the Ministry of Energy’s hydrogen strategy document, preparation for hydrogen integration is proposed, including examination steps and pilots until 2030. If global and local progress in the field is indeed seen, development and production will continue until the implementation of hydrogen use by 2050. At the same time, at this stage, there is preparation for limited use of hydrogen, mainly due to Israel’s characteristics and the technological maturity of hydrogen. Beyond broad preparation dependent on several conditions, the Ministry of Energy recommends a gradual roadmap that will be re-examined yearly (ibid., p. 14).
From the Ministry of Energy’s perspective, the immediate-term steps (until 2030) include pilots, experiments, feasibility studies, regulatory adjustments, and annual reviews. These are critical preparatory steps that do not incur high error costs – creating the knowledge infrastructure required for future decision-making, addressing the following areas:
- Policy measures that lay the initial infrastructure for limited hydrogen use today.
- Promoting local hydrogen valleys, in which hydrogen production, storage, transportation technologies, etc., will be developed.
- Investment in R&D for feasibility demonstration will help adapt regulations to local characteristics.
- Infrastructure development: gas stations, green hydrogen production, the feasibility of hydrogen transportation in natural gas pipelines, and more.
- Knowledge sharing and trade between countries are essential for technology development, cost reduction, trade relations, and diversification of energy sources. This is especially important in Israel, hydrogen importsare inevitable. In this context, in 2022, the Ministry of Energy signed a hydrogen-related cooperation agreement with the German Ministry of Economy and Energy.
* All information provided in this article is correct as of the date of writing and according to the data available to the author. The Innovation Authority or anyone on its behalf is not responsible for the accuracy, truthfulness, and precision of the data, in whole or in part. The article is published for the public’s benefit, and no commercial use should be made of it, including for its sale, distribution, or presentation.