Technologies for Carbon Capture, Storage, Utilization, and Removal from the Atmosphere

The Main Chapters of the CarbonTech Field, as Detailed in This Review:

Carbon Capture
Technologies for reducing or preventing carbon emissions. These are already being implemented globally.

Carbon Removal
Technologies aimed at removing CO₂ already emitted into the atmosphere. These are in the early development and pilot stages.

Carbon Storage & Utilization
Technologies for storing or utilizing captured/removed CO₂. These are at various stages of development.

Monitoring, Management, and Tracking of Carbon
Technologies for tracking and monitoring processes within the other segments. These will be discussed in a separate review.

It is worth noting that the term “CarbonTech” is sometimes used to describe a narrower vertical, focusing solely on technologies for utilizing carbon dioxide as a raw material in various industries (carbon utilization). However, in this review we adopt the broader definition.

In September 2022, we published a review on carbon capture, providing an overview of the entire CarbonTech field. Given the growing interest and activity in this sector, it was decided to revisit the topic of carbon and publish an additional, more comprehensive review presenting updated information.

The objectives of this review are:

1. To delve deeper into the technologies at the industry’s core, including how they function, their Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs), and their limitations.
2. To expand the scope of technologies covered in atmospheric carbon removal.
3. To update the status of the local and global ecosystem in light of developments over the past two years.

In 2015, the Paris Agreement was signed, committing all countries to keeping global temperature rise below 2°C above the historical average, with an aspirational target of limiting the increase to 1.5°C. Achieving this goal requires reaching climate neutrality (Net Zero) by 2050, meaning global emissions must be reduced as close to zero as possible while removing an equivalent amount of carbon from the atmosphere to prevent further greenhouse gas accumulation.

Two main arguments underline the importance of carbon capture in achieving climate neutrality:

1. Carbon capture can enable industries with limited emission-reduction solutions to continue operating while significantly reducing climate damage. Industries such as cement and steel production are examples where full emission reduction options are unavailable. However, this approach faces criticism. Installing carbon capture facilities may serve as an excuse to keep polluting power plants, such as coal-based ones, operational, despite the availability of cheaper renewable energy alternatives.
2. Carbon removal from the atmosphere is required to meet the Paris Agreement targets by 2050. Since current CO₂ emissions are high and still rising, almost all models outlining pathways to keep global warming within the targets are based on implementing some degree of atmospheric CO₂ removal. The latest report (AR6) from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), published in 2022, notes that all scenarios allowing for a temperature rise to 1.5°C include some atmospheric CO₂ removal. Many scenarios assume that CO₂ removal will occur at much higher scales in the coming decades than current technology can achieve (AR6 WGIII, Chapter 3). In other words, carbon capture is not only a potentially disruptive technology in climate space but also an essential technology for maintaining reasonable temperatures on Earth, given that global greenhouse gas emissions have not yet decreased (State of CDR).

Carbon Capture at the Emission Source refers to technologies used by power plants and polluting industrial facilities to capture CO₂ emitted from industrial processes.

There are four main methods for carbon capture from industrial facilities:

CO₂ must be separated from other gases after capturing it, using any of the four methods.

The main separation methods are:

Unlike carbon capture technologies, which focus on capturing CO₂ at emission sources where its concentration is relatively high, Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) technologies aim to reduce the concentration of CO₂ already present in the atmosphere through various technological means. These methods face a physical challenge due to the low concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere (approximately 0.04%, compared to tens of percent in power plant flue gases and industrial facilities).

CDR technologies can be categorized in two primary ways:

1. Land-Based vs. Ocean-Based Methods
   The intuitive approach to reducing atmospheric CO₂ concentrations is to remove the gas directly from the atmosphere. However, about a quarter of CO₂ emissions are absorbed by the oceans. Removing some carbon from the oceans could lead to additional CO₂ absorption from the atmosphere. Thus, some CDR methods do not remove CO₂ from the atmosphere but instead target the oceans.
   
2. Engineered vs. Natural Methods
   Many companies are developing engineered methods to separate CO₂ from the atmosphere or oceans. Simultaneously, CDR has significant potential through “natural technologies” such as trees, wetlands, and algae.

For a comprehensive overview of existing CDR methods classified by these categories, see the World Resources Institute report State of Climate Action 2022, page 134. Since this review focuses on technological approaches, the following sections will detail the main engineered methods without delving extensively into natural methods.

DACCS – Direct Air Capture with CCS (TRL 6)

According to the IEA, as of April 2022, there were 18 active DAC (Direct Air Capture) facilities globally, most of which are small-scale. The largest, located in Iceland and operated by the Swiss company Climeworks, captures 4,000 tons of CO₂ annually and stores it through mineralization. The world’s first large-scale DAC facility, designed to remove one megaton of CO₂ per year, is under construction in the U.S. in partnership with Carbon Engineering and is expected to be operational mid-decade. Another leading company, Global Thermostat, is establishing facilities in Chile. The two most advanced DAC methods are solid DAC (S-DAC), based on adsorption, and liquid DAC (L-DAC), based on absorption. Other DAC methods currently at lower TRL levels include membranes and ESA (Electro Swing Adsorption), which uses an electrode that adsorbs CO₂ when negatively charged and releases it when positively charged.

The primary challenge of DAC lies in its high cost due to the deficient concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere, which requires significant energy for separation. The price of removing a ton of CO₂ in commercial-scale facilities (which do not yet exist) remains unclear, with estimates ranging from $100 to $1,000 per ton. The final cost of these technologies will largely determine their scale of implementation.

BECCS – Bioenergy with CCS (TRL 5-6)

BECCS is a specific sub-technology for capturing carbon emitted from bioenergy production. Conceptually, BECCS offers an energy source with a negative carbon footprint. During biomass growth, atmospheric CO₂ is fixed in the plants, which is then burned to generate energy at facilities equipped with carbon capture to prevent the carbon from re-entering the atmosphere. This process theoretically allows for simultaneous energy production and carbon removal.

Due to this theoretical potential, many organizations anticipate extensive BECCS deployment in achieving net-zero CO₂ emissions. For example, IEA models suggest that by 2030, 190 megatons of CO₂ will need to be removed annually using this technology. However, actual deployment falls short of this target, with facilities expected to reach only 50 megatons annually by 2030, based on operational or under-construction projects.

Key players in the BECCS market include Orsted, a large project developer in Denmark, and multiple Drax projects under construction in the UK. However, environmental organizations and researchers caution that BECCS’s climate benefits depend on sourcing biomass in ways that do not harm ecosystems or degrade soil.

CO₂ Transportation:

Before CO₂ can be stored or utilized, it must be transported to the designated site. The main options for CO₂ transportation are via gas pipelines or by cooling the gas into a liquid state for shipment via ships or trucks. Pipeline transport requires significant infrastructure investment but becomes cost-effective post-construction, whereas shipping or trucking CO₂ demands substantial energy for cooling. These transportation methods are already widely implemented in the industry for other gases, such as natural gas, and thus require minimal technological innovation.
Several existing CO₂ transport infrastructures, such as the ACTL pipeline in Alberta, Canada, serve as examples. This 240-kilometer pipeline collects CO₂ from regional facilities for use in the oil industry. It currently transports 1.6 million tons of CO₂ annually and has a potential capacity of 14.6 million tons.

Geological Storage:

The most promising potential for CO₂ storage lies underground in geological formations with high permeability (e.g., porous rock allowing the entry of gases or liquids). Geological storage is estimated to exceed one trillion tons of CO₂. Viable storage sites include depleted oil and gas wells, saline aquifers, and basalt rock formations. Of these, saline aquifer storage is the most widely used in operational facilities, while the others are still in various development and pilot phases.
Challenges to large-scale CO₂ storage include costs, infrastructure needs, and international cooperation since storage potential is unevenly distributed globally. Many required technologies already exist in the oil and gas industry. According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), over 100 active or planned CCS projects worldwide focus on CO₂ storage. Notable activity hubs include the North Sea, with significant projects led by Denmark, Norway, and other countries.

CO₂ Utilization:

Large-scale geological storage will not occur without government subsidies or regulatory mandates requiring polluting companies to capture and store their emissions. This is because CO₂ storage does not inherently generate demand. Consequently, recent years have seen substantial R&D efforts to create markets for CO₂-derived products. The goal is to incentivize carbon capture by creating valuable products that reduce atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. This sector appeals to technological entrepreneurs and venture capital investors due to its dual potential: practical product creation and climate benefits. However, the climate impact of CO₂ utilization depends on the product type and its lifecycle emissions. For example, synthetic fuels made from CO₂ could achieve net-zero emissions, but burning the fuel would ultimately re-release the captured CO₂.
Thus, CO₂ utilization complements geological storage, supporting the carbon market rather than replacing long-term storage solutions.

Direct Uses of CO₂

Several industries currently utilize CO₂. The largest is the fertilizer industry, where CO₂ produces urea from ammonia. The second-largest is the oil and gas industry, which uses CO₂ to enhance oil well productivity in Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). In this process, CO₂ is compressed and injected into oil wells to “push out” more crude oil, thereby increasing production. This method provides permanent CO₂ storage, but its environmental benefit is debated because it results in the extraction of additional fossil fuels, which emit CO₂ upon combustion. However, it can be argued that since the oil would be extracted regardless, using CO₂ for EOR is preferable to other methods for increasing oil well efficiency, such as water injection or chemical processes that do not involve carbon sequestration.

Other industries that use smaller quantities of CO₂ include the food and beverage industry (for carbonation). Additional potential applications for CO₂ include its use as a refrigerant and to enhance agricultural yields in greenhouses or algae cultivation ponds (increased CO₂ concentrations in the air boost the rate of photosynthesis).

Indirect Uses of CO₂

In addition to the direct uses of CO₂ in the industries above, there are indirect uses where CO₂ is processed chemically to create other materials with industrial value. These indirect uses are concentrated in three primary industries:

1. Building Materials: The concrete industry accounts for 7-8% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Many of these emissions stem from the chemical reactions in concrete production, challenging reducing emissions at their source. Consequently, this industry is expected to become a significant carbon capture and utilization technology market. One promising method for CO₂ in concrete production is Carbon Curing, where CO₂ gas is injected into the concrete mix after the cement, water, and aggregates are combined. The carbon bonds with calcium in the cement to form calcite, a mineral that strengthens the concrete. This process permanently removes carbon from the atmosphere because even if the concrete is destroyed in the future, the carbon remains trapped in mineral form. Companies in this sector include CarbonCure and Solidia. Another use of CO₂ in the construction industry involves atmospheric carbon mineralization to produce materials that can partially replace cement or aggregates in concrete mixtures, as seen in companies like Carbon8. However, it is worth noting that these technologies are currently in extensive pilot stages and not yet widely adopted, with doubts about claims that they can produce carbon-neutral concrete.
   
   
2. Polymers: Another emerging field is using carbon to create synthetic polymers for various applications. Generally, these products are not yet cost-competitive with their conventional counterparts that do not rely on atmospheric CO₂. Notable examples include Newlight, which produces a biopolymer that can serve as a plastic substitute; startups Fairbrics and RUBI, which are developing technologies to produce textile fibers from atmospheric carbon; and Twelve, which offers a range of products made from atmospheric CO₂, including eyewear lenses.
   
   
3. Chemicals and Synthetic Fuels: CO₂ has the potential to be used to create chemicals such as carbon monoxide, methanol, and formic acid, which serve as chemical intermediaries in the production of other industrial chemicals. Additionally, CO₂ can produce chemicals that function as fuels, such as ethanol, methanol, and methane (natural gas). Production can occur through chemical or biological processes (e.g., using microbes). Leading companies in this sector include Lanzatech (producing ethanol through biological methods), Carbon Recycling International (producing methanol through chemical processes), and Prometheus Fuels  (producing ethanol through chemical methods).

Governmental Investments:

Private Investments:

This review examined technologies focused on carbon capture, storage, and utilization, addressing two distinct areas:

1. Carbon Capture at Emission Points: Technologies that capture emissions directly from factories or power plants, serving to reduce new CO₂ emissions.
2. Atmospheric CO₂ Removal: Technologies that remove existing CO₂ from the atmosphere, by accelerating natural processes or utilizing engineered systems to filter the air, aim to lower the concentration of atmospheric CO₂ already present.

Various technologies facilitating point-source carbon capture and atmospheric CO₂ removal were reviewed. Carbon capture technologies are generally at a more advanced technology readiness level (TRL) and are widely implemented globally today.

Carbon capture and removal technologies are critical tools for mitigating the adverse effects of climate change. Their disruptive potential is high, with point-source carbon capture technologies particularly important for industries where CO₂ emissions are exceptionally challenging to reduce (e.g., cement and steel industries). Atmospheric CO₂ removal technologies could enable adherence to the Paris Agreement goals (limiting global warming to 2°C or preferably 1.5°C) despite rising global greenhouse gas emissions since its adoption in 2015. According to the IPCC’s 2022 report, all scenarios for limiting warming to 1.5°C require some atmospheric CO₂ removal using technological methods.

After CO₂ is captured or removed from the atmosphere, two main pathways are available:

1. Storage: Storing CO₂ in geological formations, such as aquifers or abandoned gas and oil fields, removes it from the atmosphere long-term.
2. Utilization: Using CO₂ as a raw material in various industries, such as manufacturing building materials, synthetic fuels, chemicals, and polymers. Alternatively, CO₂ can be directly utilized in fertilizer production, enhanced oil recovery, greenhouse enrichment, or as a refrigerant gas.

Both storage and utilization have advantages and disadvantages. Utilizing CO₂ produces substitute products already in demand, such as polymers and chemicals, but some captured CO₂ might eventually be released back into the atmosphere during product use. Geological CO₂ storage offers vast potential capacity worldwide. It enables long-term sequestration, but creating a market where companies are willing to pay for CO₂ storage may require regulatory action mandating or incentivizing this approach.

There has been notable growth in the CarbonTech field in recent years. Governments and private companies worldwide have invested in innovative atmospheric CO₂ removal methods as part of their climate commitments. As of the end of 2023, 15 Israeli companies have been identified in this sector, compared to only six in a review conducted during 2022. Many of these companies were established during 2022-2023 , and some existing companies, such as Groundworks Bioag and Bluegreen Water Technologies , have entered the CarbonTech field in addition to their previous activities.

Israel also has two forums focusing on CarbonTech: the Israeli Academic Forum for Carbon Fixation and Climate Net, the Israeli Carbon Fixation Community. Considering the rapid growth of this field in recent years and regulatory trends in Europe, North America, and Asia, the companies and investors pioneering carbon capture, storage, and utilization technologies are expected to lead the market.

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