{"id":17350,"date":"2024-12-29T13:18:32","date_gmt":"2024-12-29T13:18:32","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/innovationisrael.org.il\/en\/?p=17350"},"modified":"2025-02-05T09:22:09","modified_gmt":"2025-02-05T09:22:09","slug":"carbontech-p1","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/innovationisrael.org.il\/en\/carbontech-p1\/","title":{"rendered":"CarbonTech \u2013 Part One"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Technologies for Carbon Capture, Storage, Utilization, and Removal from the Atmosphere<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n


<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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CarbonTech is a broad term encompassing a range of technologies to prevent greenhouse gas emissions, specifically carbon dioxide (CO\u2082), and remove it from the atmosphere. According to PitchBook<\/a>, the CarbonTech field can be roughly divided into two main categories: removing CO\u2082 from the atmosphere and creating products with a reduced carbon footprint compared to standard products. Additionally, there is significant growth in the areas of carbon management, monitoring, and fintech activities related to CO\u2082 emissions.<\/p>\n<\/div>

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The Main Chapters of the CarbonTech Field, as Detailed in This Review:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\" Carbon Capture<\/strong>
Technologies for reducing or preventing carbon emissions. These are already being implemented globally.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\" Carbon Removal<\/strong>
Technologies aimed at removing CO\u2082 already emitted into the atmosphere. These are in the early development and pilot stages.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\" Carbon Storage & Utilization<\/strong>
Technologies for storing or utilizing captured\/removed CO\u2082. These are at various stages of development.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\" Monitoring, Management, and Tracking of Carbon<\/strong>
Technologies for tracking and monitoring processes within the other segments. These will be discussed in a separate review.<\/p>\n\n\n\n


<\/p>\n\n\n\n

It is worth noting that the term “CarbonTech” is sometimes used to describe a narrower vertical, focusing solely on technologies for utilizing carbon dioxide as a raw material in various industries (carbon utilization). However, in this review we adopt the broader definition.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In September 2022, we published a review on carbon capture<\/strong>, providing an overview of the entire CarbonTech field. Given the growing interest and activity in this sector, it was decided to revisit the topic of carbon and publish an additional, more comprehensive review presenting updated information.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The objectives of this review are:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \n
  1. To delve deeper <\/strong>into the technologies at the industry’s core, including how they function, their Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs), and their limitations.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  2. To expand<\/strong> the scope of technologies covered in atmospheric carbon removal.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  3. To update<\/strong> the status of the local and global ecosystem in light of developments over the past two years.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n


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    Carbon Technologies as a Climate Disruptor<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

    In 2015, the Paris Agreement<\/a> was signed, committing all countries to keeping global temperature rise below 2\u00b0C above the historical average, with an aspirational target of limiting the increase to 1.5\u00b0C. Achieving this goal requires reaching climate neutrality (Net Zero) by 2050, meaning global emissions must be reduced as close to zero as possible while removing an equivalent amount of carbon from the atmosphere to prevent further greenhouse gas accumulation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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    Two main arguments underline the importance of carbon capture in achieving climate neutrality:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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    1. Carbon capture can enable industries with limited emission-reduction solutions to continue operating while significantly reducing climate damage. <\/strong>Industries such as cement and steel production are examples where full emission reduction options are unavailable. However, this approach faces criticism. Installing carbon capture facilities may serve as an excuse to keep polluting power plants, such as coal-based ones, operational, despite the availability of cheaper renewable energy alternatives.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    2. Carbon removal from the atmosphere is required to meet the Paris Agreement targets by 2050.<\/strong> Since current CO\u2082 emissions are high and still rising, almost all models outlining pathways to keep global warming within the targets are based on implementing some degree of atmospheric CO\u2082 removal. The latest report (AR6) from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC<\/a>), published in 2022, notes that all scenarios allowing for a temperature rise to 1.5\u00b0C include some atmospheric CO\u2082 removal. Many scenarios assume that CO\u2082 removal will occur at much higher scales in the coming decades than current technology can achieve (AR6 WGIII, Chapter 3<\/a>). In other words, carbon capture is not only a potentially disruptive technology in climate space but also an essential technology for maintaining reasonable temperatures on Earth, given that global greenhouse gas emissions have not yet decreased (State of CDR).<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n


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      Carbon Capture at the Emission Source \u2013
      Main Technologies<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

      Carbon Capture at the Emission Source refers to technologies used by power plants and polluting industrial facilities to capture CO\u2082 emitted from industrial processes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      There are four main methods<\/a> for carbon capture from industrial facilities:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      \n
      \n

      1. Post-Combustion Capture<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      This technology is at an advanced Technology Readiness Level (TRL) and is widely utilized, primarily in fossil fuel plants. It separates carbon dioxide (CO\u2082) from other gases after combustion. However, this method has a significant drawback: it incurs high energy costs, as CO\u2082 typically makes up only a tiny percentage of the emitted gases. The addition of a post-combustion carbon capture facility increases energy consumption per megawatt of electricity by an average of 16% and raises electricity costs by approximately 50%.

      <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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      2. Pre-Combustion Capture<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      This method is based on hydrogen production techniques that are widely used commercially. It is suitable for carbon capture in power plants and is primarily implemented in coal-fired plants for economic reasons. In this process, the primary fuel undergoes partial oxidation or steam reforming to produce hydrogen gas and carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide reacts with steam in the power plant to form CO\u2082, which is separated and transported for storage. Electricity is then generated by burning the hydrogen gas in an emission-free process.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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      3. Oxy-Fuel Combustion<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      This method involves burning fuels in an environment with a very high oxygen concentration (95%-99% by volume). In this environment, fuel combustion primarily releases CO\u2082 and water vapor into the air, along with low concentrations of particulates, sulfur, and nitrogen oxides. After filtering out the low-concentration components, the remaining gas is cooled until the water vapor condenses. The result is an almost pure stream of CO\u2082, which can be compressed and transported for storage. This method is in the early demonstration stages.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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      4. Industrial Separation<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      Industrial separation is a general term for various carbon capture methods used in cases where CO\u2082 is emitted from industrial and chemical processes rather than energy production through fuel combustion. This term encompasses different technologies tailored to various industries, such as steel and aluminum production, concrete, or ammonia. Depending on the specific industrial process, capture methods similar to those described here can be adapted, with the difference being the source of the captured carbon.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

      CO\u2082 must be separated from other gases after capturing it, using any of the four methods.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      The main separation methods are<\/a>:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      <\/p>\n\n\n\n

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      \"\" Absorption<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      Absorption systems rely on a chemical or physical reaction between CO\u2082 and a liquid solvent, causing the gas to dissolve into the liquid. Later in the process, the product can be heated to separate the CO\u2082 from the solvent, allowing the solvent to be reused. Absorption systems have been applied industrially for decades, though new physical and chemical solvents are under development and have lower TRL levels emerging.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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      \"\" Membranes<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      Membranes of various types are used to separate CO\u2082 molecules from other molecules. The complexity and efficiency of these systems depend on the type of membrane and the number of membranes employed. Since membrane separation partially relies on the concentration gradient across the membrane, this method is particularly effective in pre-combustion systems, where CO\u2082 concentration in the emission gas is high.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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      \"\" Adsorption<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      Adsorption is when gas molecules adhere to a solid surface due to a chemical or physical reaction. Various adsorption-based methods exist at different TRL levels, depending on the properties of the adsorbent material, its suitability for different capture methods, and its application in multiple industries. To implement adsorption on a commercial scale, large-scale production of the adsorbent material is required, as well as solutions to address the material\u2019s reduced ability to adsorb and release CO\u2082 over time.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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      \"\" Cryogenic Cooling<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      This method relies on high-pressure cooling to produce liquid CO\u2082. Its advantage lies in separating 99.99% of CO\u2082 with near-perfect purity. However, the process is not economically viable due to its high energy cost. Low-TRL developments are exploring hybrid approaches that combine cryogenic cooling with other methods. Pilot projects also apply cryogenic cooling in the concrete industry, which emits exceptionally high volumes of CO\u2082.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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      \"\" Chemical Looping<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      This innovative technology is in the early pilot stages (TRL 5-6). It is designed for facilities burning fuel. Instead of oxidizing the fuel with air, which mixes CO\u2082 emissions with other gases, the fuel is oxidized using a solid (typically metal oxide). This closed process produces only water vapor and CO\u2082. By cooling, the water vapor can be condensed, resulting in a pure CO\u2082 stream.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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      \"\" Calcium Looping<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      This technology is in the pilot stages (TRL 6-7). It is based on the use of calcium carbonate (CaCO\u2083). Calcium carbonate is heated in one chamber (the calcifier) until it decomposes into CO\u2082 and CaO. The CO\u2082 stream is separated, and the CaO is transferred to a second chamber (the carbonator), where it reacts with CO\u2082 in the exhaust gas to form calcium carbonate. The calcium carbonate is then returned to the first chamber and decomposed into a clean CO\u2082 stream and calcium oxide.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n


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      Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR)<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

      Unlike carbon capture technologies, which focus on capturing CO\u2082 at emission sources where its concentration is relatively high, Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) technologies aim to reduce the concentration of CO\u2082 already present in the atmosphere through various technological means. These methods face a physical challenge due to the low concentration of CO\u2082 in the atmosphere (approximately 0.04%, compared to tens of percent in power plant flue gases and industrial facilities).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      CDR technologies can be categorized in two primary ways:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

        \n
      1. Land-Based vs. Ocean-Based Methods<\/strong>
        The intuitive approach to reducing atmospheric CO\u2082 concentrations is to remove the gas directly from the atmosphere. However, about a quarter of CO\u2082 emissions are absorbed by the oceans. Removing some carbon from the oceans could lead to additional CO\u2082 absorption from the atmosphere. Thus, some CDR methods do not remove CO\u2082 from the atmosphere but instead target the oceans<\/strong>.
        <\/li>\n\n\n\n
      2. Engineered vs. Natural Methods<\/strong>
        Many companies are developing engineered methods to separate CO\u2082 from the atmosphere or oceans. Simultaneously, CDR has significant potential through “natural technologies” such as trees, wetlands, and algae.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n

        For a comprehensive overview of existing CDR methods classified by these categories, see the World Resources Institute report<\/a> State of Climate Action 2022<\/em>, page 134. Since this review focuses on technological approaches, the following sections will detail the main engineered methods without delving extensively into natural methods.<\/p>\n\n\n\n



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        Engineering-Based Carbon Dioxide Removal Methods<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

        \"\" DACCS \u2013 Direct Air Capture with CCS (TRL 6<\/a>)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

        According to the IEA, as of April 2022, there were 18 active DAC (Direct Air Capture) facilities globally, most of which are small-scale. The largest, located in Iceland and operated by the Swiss company Climeworks<\/a>, captures 4,000 tons of CO\u2082 annually and stores it through mineralization. The world\u2019s first large-scale DAC facility, designed to remove one megaton of CO\u2082 per year, is under construction in the U.S. in partnership with Carbon Engineering<\/a> and is expected to be operational mid-decade. Another leading company, Global Thermostat<\/a>, is establishing facilities in Chile. The two most advanced DAC methods are solid DAC (S-DAC), based on adsorption, and liquid DAC (L-DAC), based on absorption. Other DAC methods currently at lower TRL levels include membranes and ESA (Electro Swing Adsorption), which uses an electrode that adsorbs CO\u2082 when negatively charged and releases it when positively charged.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

        The primary challenge of DAC lies in its high cost due to the deficient concentration of CO\u2082 in the atmosphere, which requires significant energy for separation. The price of removing a ton of CO\u2082 in commercial-scale facilities (which do not yet exist) remains unclear, with estimates ranging from $100 to $1,000 per ton. The final cost of these technologies will largely determine their scale of implementation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n


        <\/p>\n\n\n\n

        \"\" BECCS \u2013 Bioenergy with CCS (TRL 5-6<\/a>)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

        BECCS is a specific sub-technology for capturing carbon emitted from bioenergy production. Conceptually, BECCS offers an energy source with a negative carbon footprint. During biomass growth, atmospheric CO\u2082 is fixed in the plants, which is then burned to generate energy at facilities equipped with carbon capture to prevent the carbon from re-entering the atmosphere. This process theoretically allows for simultaneous energy production and carbon removal.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

        Due to this theoretical potential, many organizations anticipate extensive BECCS deployment in achieving net-zero CO\u2082 emissions. For example, IEA models<\/a> suggest that by 2030, 190 megatons of CO\u2082 will need to be removed annually using this technology. However, actual deployment falls short of this target, with facilities expected to reach only 50 megatons annually by 2030, based on operational or under-construction projects.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

        Key players in the BECCS market include Orsted, a large project developer in Denmark<\/a>, and multiple Drax projects under construction<\/a> in the UK. However, environmental organizations and researchers caution <\/a>that BECCS’s climate benefits depend on sourcing biomass in ways that do not harm ecosystems or degrade soil.<\/p>\n\n\n\n


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        Enhanced Weathering<\/strong>
        TRL 3-4<\/strong><\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n\n

        Weathering is a natural process in which rocks break down into their constituent minerals and dissolve in water. Carbonic acid, formed when atmospheric CO\u2082 dissolves in water, contributes to natural weathering. This carbonic acid reacts with minerals in the rock, naturally sequestering carbon. This process occurs over very long timeframes. Enhanced Weathering<\/strong> is a proposed technology aimed at accelerating this natural process through various means, such as spreading powdered minerals to increase dissolution rates compared to natural rock formations.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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        Ocean Alkalinization<\/strong>
        TRL 1-2<\/strong><\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n\n

        A significant portion of atmospheric CO\u2082 dissolves in the oceans, forming carbonic acid and bicarbonate, contributing to ocean acidification. The chemical equilibrium among several reactions determines the concentration of carbon in its various forms in the oceans. Theoretically, increasing ocean pH by introducing a primary substance could trigger an acid-base reaction to neutralize some of the carbonic acid, shifting the ocean’s chemical equilibrium to produce more carbonic acid from dissolved CO\u2082, thereby pulling additional CO\u2082 from the atmosphere. This technology is currently in early research stages, and its practical feasibility remains uncertain.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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        Ocean Fertilization<\/strong>
        TRL 1-2<\/strong><\/a><\/h4>\n\n\n\n

        Phytoplankton, microscopic organisms, form the foundation of the oceanic food chain. Through photosynthesis, phytoplankton generate energy while fixing CO\u2082. The growth and carbon fixation capacity of phytoplankton depends on the water’s availability of nutrients such as iron, nitrogen, and phosphorus. It has been proposed that adding these nutrients to ocean waters could stimulate phytoplankton growth, increasing biomass production. This biomass would eventually sink to the ocean floor, where the carbon could be sequestered for the long term. However, studies in this field have yielded mixed results, and the scalability and viability of this approach remain unclear.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n


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        Transportation, Storage, and Utilization of Carbon Dioxide<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

        \"\" CO\u2082 Transportation:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

        Before CO\u2082 can be stored or utilized, it must be transported to the designated site. The main options for CO\u2082 transportation are via gas pipelines or by cooling the gas into a liquid state for shipment via ships or trucks. Pipeline transport requires significant infrastructure investment but becomes cost-effective post-construction, whereas shipping or trucking CO\u2082 demands substantial energy for cooling. These transportation methods are already widely implemented in the industry for other gases, such as natural gas, and thus require minimal technological innovation.
        Several existing CO\u2082 transport infrastructures, such as the         ACTL <\/a>pipeline in Alberta, Canada, serve as examples. This 240-kilometer pipeline<\/a> collects CO\u2082 from regional facilities for use in the oil industry. It currently transports 1.6 million tons of CO\u2082 annually and has a potential capacity of 14.6 million tons.<\/p>\n\n\n\n


        <\/p>\n\n\n\n

        \"\" Geological Storage:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

        The most promising potential for CO\u2082 storage lies underground in geological formations with high permeability (e.g., porous rock allowing the entry of gases or liquids). Geological storage is estimated to exceed one trillion tons of CO\u2082<\/a>. Viable storage sites include depleted oil and gas wells, saline aquifers, and basalt rock formations. Of these, saline aquifer storage is the most widely used in operational facilities, while the others are still in various development and pilot phases.
        Challenges to large-scale CO\u2082 storage include costs, infrastructure needs, and international cooperation since storage potential is unevenly distributed globally. Many required technologies already exist in the oil and gas industry. According to the         U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)<\/a>, over 100 active or planned CCS projects worldwide focus on CO\u2082 storage. Notable activity hubs include the North Sea, with significant projects led by Denmark<\/a>, Norway<\/a>, and other countries.<\/p>\n\n\n\n


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        \"\" CO\u2082 Utilization:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

        Large-scale geological storage will not occur without government subsidies or regulatory mandates requiring polluting companies to capture and store their emissions. This is because CO\u2082 storage does not inherently generate demand. Consequently, recent years have seen substantial R&D efforts to create markets for CO\u2082-derived products. The goal is to incentivize carbon capture by creating valuable products that reduce atmospheric CO\u2082 concentrations. This sector appeals<\/a> to technological entrepreneurs and venture capital investors due to its dual potential: practical product creation and climate benefits. However, the climate impact of CO\u2082 utilization depends on the product type and its lifecycle emissions. For example, synthetic fuels made from CO\u2082 could achieve net-zero emissions, but burning the fuel would ultimately re-release the captured CO\u2082.
        Thus, CO\u2082 utilization complements geological storage, supporting the carbon market         rather than replacing<\/a> long-term storage solutions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n



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        Direct and Indirect Uses of CO\u2082<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

        \"\" Direct Uses of CO\u2082<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

        Several industries currently utilize <\/a>CO\u2082. The largest is the fertilizer industry, where CO\u2082 produces urea from ammonia. The second-largest is the oil and gas industry, which uses CO\u2082 to enhance oil well productivity in Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). In this process, CO\u2082 is compressed and injected into oil wells to “push out” more crude oil, thereby increasing production. This method provides permanent CO\u2082 storage, but its environmental benefit is debated because it results in the extraction of additional fossil fuels, which emit CO\u2082 upon combustion. However, it can be argued that since the oil would be extracted regardless, using CO\u2082 for EOR is preferable to other methods for increasing oil well efficiency, such as water injection or chemical processes that do not involve carbon sequestration.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

        Other industries that use smaller quantities of CO\u2082 include the food and beverage industry (for carbonation). Additional potential applications for CO\u2082 include its use as a refrigerant and to enhance agricultural yields in greenhouses or algae cultivation ponds (increased CO\u2082 concentrations in the air boost the rate of photosynthesis).<\/p>\n\n\n\n


        <\/p>\n\n\n\n

        \"\" Indirect Uses of CO\u2082<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

        In addition to the direct uses of CO\u2082 in the industries above, there are indirect uses where CO\u2082 is processed chemically to create other materials with industrial value. These indirect uses are concentrated in three primary industries:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

          \n
        1. Building Materials:<\/strong> The concrete industry accounts for 7-8% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Many of these emissions stem from the chemical reactions in concrete production, challenging reducing emissions at their source. Consequently, this industry is expected to become<\/a> a significant carbon capture and utilization technology market. One promising method for CO\u2082 in concrete production is Carbon Curing<\/a>, where CO\u2082 gas is injected into the concrete mix after the cement, water, and aggregates are combined. The carbon bonds with calcium in the cement to form calcite, a mineral that strengthens the concrete. This process permanently removes carbon from the atmosphere because even if the concrete is destroyed in the future, the carbon remains trapped in mineral form. Companies in this sector include CarbonCure<\/a> and Solidia<\/a>. Another use of CO\u2082 in the construction industry involves atmospheric carbon mineralization to produce materials that can partially replace cement or aggregates in concrete mixtures, as seen in companies like Carbon8<\/a>. However, it is worth noting that these technologies are currently in extensive pilot stages and not yet widely adopted, with doubts<\/a> about claims that they can produce carbon-neutral concrete.

          <\/li>\n\n\n\n
        2. Polymers:<\/strong> Another emerging field is using carbon to create synthetic polymers for various applications. Generally, these products are not yet cost-competitive with their conventional counterparts that do not rely on atmospheric CO\u2082. Notable examples include Newlight<\/a>, which produces a biopolymer that can serve as a plastic substitute; startups Fairbrics<\/a> and RUBI<\/a>, which are developing technologies to produce textile fibers from atmospheric carbon; and Twelve, which offers a range of products made from atmospheric CO\u2082, including eyewear lenses.

          <\/li>\n\n\n\n
        3. Chemicals and Synthetic Fuels:<\/strong> CO\u2082 has the potential to be used to create chemicals such as carbon monoxide, methanol, and formic acid, which serve as chemical intermediaries in the production of other industrial chemicals. Additionally, CO\u2082 can produce chemicals that function as fuels, such as ethanol, methanol, and methane (natural gas). Production can occur through chemical or biological processes (e.g., using microbes). Leading companies in this sector include Lanzatech<\/a> (producing ethanol through biological methods), Carbon Recycling International<\/a> (producing methanol through chemical processes), and Prometheus Fuels<\/a>  (producing ethanol through chemical methods).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n


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          Examples of Investments and Facilities Worldwide<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n


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          Governmental Investments:<\/h2>\n\n\n\n


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          European Union<\/h3>\n\n\n\n


          There are two main avenues for supporting CCS and CDR in the European Union:<\/p>\n\n\n\n